From exploitation to conservation: a historical analysis of zoos and their functions in human societies
Visualizações: 7972DOI:
https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2020-01-9.02-1-32Keywords:
Zoological Garden, Conservation Centers, Animal Welfare, Zoo Education, Visitor's PerceptionAbstract
Currently there are many interfaces that allow the relationship between humans and animals, including zoos. Throughout history, the change in zoo structure has accompanied the social and cultural changes of human society. Nevertheless, despite the remarkable progress since early zoos were organized, there is still a great need for improvements of zoos around the world. A critical look at the relationship between humans and animals that led to the establishment of zoos was the aim of this study. Zoos currently follow some precepts (entertainment, education, research and conservation), however has not been enough to bind changes in zoos that still lack in accomplishing these pillars. Such lacks create a scenario for discussions between those who believe in the potential of conservation projects developed by zoos and those who find hostile and inadequate to animal life. It can be suggested that the bedrocks were the result of how human beings have perceived animals over time, since perception interferes with the way people deal with what surrounds them. In this way, the merely utilitarian vision of prehistoric times came from the perception that people had about animals at that time. Understanding the evolution of people’s perception of animals and how this perception has influenced the configuration of zoos can tell us the directions they can take from now on. We believe that the next step is to turn our attention to the visitors, not only to meet their leisure expectations, but for them to become allies in the fight for biodiversity conservatio.Downloads
References
Acampora RR (1998) Extinction by exhibition: Looking at and in the zoo. Human Ecology Review 5:1-4.
Ahmad S, Ali Z, Nemat A, Sikander SK, Hussain Z, Saleem K. (2015) The study of public perception for captive animals at Lahore zoo, Pakistan. The Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences 25:509-513.
Ajzen I (1991) The theory of planned behavior. Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes 50:179-211. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0749-5978(91)90020-T
Alarape AA, Yager GO, Salman KK (2015) Assessment of tourists satisfaction and perception in Makurdi Zoological Garden, Benue State, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Forestry, Wildlife and Environment 7:1-12.
Almeida AV, Oliveira MAB, Meunier IMJM (2011) Animais e plantas do horto zoo-botânico do palácio de Friburgo (1639-1645) construído por Maurício de Nassau no Recife. Filosofia e História da Biologia 6:19-35.
Andersen LL (2003) Zoo education: from formal school programmes to exhibit design and interpretation. International Zoo Yearbook 38:75-81. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02066.x
Anderson US, Kelling AS, Pressley-Keough R, Bloomsmith MA (2003) Enhancing the zoo visitor’s experience by public animal training and oral interpretation at an otter exhibit. Environment and Behavior 35:826-841. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/0013916503254746
Aragão GMO, Kazama R (2014) Percepção sobre o bem-estar de animais silvestres no Zoológico de Brasília como ferramenta para educação ambiental. Ambiente and Educação 19:33-50.
Artursson M, Earle T, Brown J (2016) The construction of monumental landscapes in low-density societies: New evidence from the Early Neolithic of Southern Scandinavia (4000 – 3300 BC) in comparative perspective. Journal of Anthropological Archaeology 41:1-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaa.2015.11.005
Bagarinao T (1998) Nature parks, museums, gardens, and zoos for biodiversity conservation and environment education: The Philippines. Ambio 27:230-237.
Ballantyne R, Packer J (2016) Visitors' perceptions of the conservation education role of zoos and aquariums: Implications for the provision of learning experiences. Visitor Studies 19:193-210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10645578.2016.1220185
Bauer BS (2004) Ancient Cuzco: heartland of the Inca. University of Texas Press, Austin. DOI: https://doi.org/10.7560/702431
Beardsworth A, Bryman A (2001) The wild animal in late modernity: The case of the Disneyization of zoos. Tourist Studies 1:83-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/146879760100100105
Bennett ET (1829) The Tower Menagerie. R. Jennings, London.
Berlin B (1973) Folk systematics in relation to biological classification and nomenclature. Annual review of ecology and systematics 4:259-271. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.es.04.110173.001355
Berndes G, Hoogwijk M, Van Den Broek R (2003) The contribution of biomass in the future global energy supply: A review of 17 studies. Biomass and Bioenergy 25:1-28. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0961-9534(02)00185-X
Bertram B (2004) Misconceptions about zoos. Biologist 51:199-206.
Birenboim A, Reinau KH, Shoval N, Harder H (2015) High-resolution measurement and analysis of visitor experiences in time and space: The case of Aalborg zoo in Denmark. Professional Geographer 67:620-629. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/00330124.2015.1032874
Birney BA (1997) Conserving within cultural contexts. Zoo Biology 16:89-91. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1997)16:1<89::AID-ZOO10>3.0.CO;2-8
Bostock SSC (1993) Zoos and animal rights: The ethics of keeping animals. Routledge, New York.
Brading DA (1986) The Incas and the Renaissance: the royal commentaries of Inca Garcilaso De la Veja. Journal of Latin American Studies 18:1-23. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022216X00011147
Breasted JH (1906) Ancient Records of Egypt. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
Brown T (2014) “Zoo proliferation” - The first British Zoos from 1831-1840 Entwicklungsjahre und Blütezeit - Die ersten britischen Zoos von 1831-1840. Der Zoologische Garten 83:17-27. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zoolgart.2014.05.002
Burckhardt J (1878) The civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy. Macmillan, New York, pp. 294-295.
Buren EDV (1939) The fauna of ancient mesopotamia as represented in art. In: Analecta Orientalia 18. Pontificum institutum biblicum, Rome, pp 113.
Carr N (2016a) Star attractions and damp squibs at the zoo: a study of visitor attention and animal attractiveness. Tourism Recreation Research 41:326-338. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/02508281.2016.1201914
Carr N (2016b) Ideal animals and animal traits for zoos: General public perspectives. Tourism Management 57:37-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2016.05.013
Carr N. and Cohen, S. (2011) The public face of zoos: Images of entertainment, education, and conservation. Anthrozoos 24:175-189. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2752/175303711X12998632257620
Chávez KLM (1980) The archaeology of Marcavalle, in early horizon site in the Valley of Cuzco, Peru. D. Reimer, pp. 107-205.
Clark G, Piggott S (1965) Prehistoric societies. Hutchinson, New York.
Clutton-Brock J (1981) Domesticated animals from early times. University Texas Press, Austin.
Coe J (2012) Design and architecture: third generation conservation, post- immersion and beyond. Future of Zoos Symposium, 10-11.
Coe JC (1986) Towards a co-evolution of zoos, aquariums and natural history museums. Annual Conference Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums, 366-376.
Coleman W (1964) George Cuvier, Zoologist: A study in the history of evolution theory. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/harvard.9780674283701
Collins BJ (1989) The representation of wild animals in Hittite texts. Ph.D. Dissertation, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
Condon E, Wehnelt S (2003) The effect of visitors on the behaviour of Humboldt’s penguins at Chester Zoo. Federation Research Newsletter 4:3.
Conway WG (1986) The practical difficulties and financial implications of endangered species breeding programmes. International Zoo Yearbook 24:210-219. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1985.tb02541.x
Conway W (1969) Zoos: Their changing roles. Science 163:48-52. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.163.3862.48
Conway W (1995) Wild and zoo animal interactive management and habitat conservation. Review of Industrial Organization 4:573-594. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00222515
Conway W (2001) AZA field conservation resource guide. pp. 1-7.
Cooper JE (1981) Bacteria. In: Cooper JE, Jackson OF (eds.) Diseases of the Reptilia. Academic Press, London, England, pp. 165-191.
Cooper M (2003) Zoo legislation. International Zoo Yearbook 38:81-93. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02067.x
Cornell T (2012) The beginnings of Rome: Italy and Rome from the Bronze Age to the Punic Wars (c. 1000–264 BC). Routledge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203821107
Coues E (1876) The destruction of birds by telegraph wire. The American Naturalistic 10:734-736. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/271788
Crosby AW (1986) Ecological Imperialism: The biological expansion of Europe, 900–1900. Cambridge University Press, New York.
Dale RHI (2010) Birth statistics for African (Loxodonta africana) and Asian (Elephas maximus) elephants in human care: History and implications for elephant welfare. Zoo Biology 29:87-103. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20234
Dalley S (1993) Ancient Mesopotamian gardens and the identification of the hanging gardens of Babylon resolved. Garden History 21:1-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1587050
Darwin C (1859) On the origin of the species by natural selection. D Appleton and Company, New York.
Darwin C (1868) The variation of animals and plants under domestication. Orange Judd and Co., New York.
Davey G (2006) Visitor behavior in zoos: A review. Anthrozoos 19:143-157. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2752/089279306785593838
Davey G (2007) Visitors’ effects on the welfare of animals in the zoo: a review. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 10:169-183. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888700701313595
D’Elia J (2010) Evolution of avian conservation breeding with insights for addressing the current extinction crisis. Journal of Fish and Wildlife Management 1:189-210. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3996/062010-JFWM-017
De La Fuente MFC, Souto A, Caselli CB, Schiel N (2017) People's perception on animal welfare: why does in matter? Ethnobiology and Conservation 6:1-7. DOI: https://doi.org/10.15451/ec2017-10-6.18-1-7
De La Vega G, Livermore HV (1964) Royal commentaries of the Incas. Franklin.
Dodson J, Dong G (2016) What do we know about domestication in eastern Asia? Quaternary International 426:2-9. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2016.04.005
Eaton RL (1981) An Overview of Zoo Goals and Exhibition Principles. International Journal for the Study of Animal Problems 2:295-299.
Erman A (1984) Life in Ancient Egypt. Dover Publications, New York.
Erp-Houtepen AV (1986) The etymological origin of the Garden. The Journal of Garden History 6:227-231. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01445170.1986.10405170
Fa JE (1989) Influence of people on the behavior of display primates. In: Segal EF (ed) Housing, Care and Psychological Well-being of Captive and Laboratory Primates. Noyes Publications: Park Ridge, 270-290.
Famula TR (2014) Domestication of animals. In: Encyclopedia of Agriculture and Food Systems 2:462-473. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00230-8
Feistner ATC (1992) Research at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust. The Dodo: journal of the Jersey Wildlife Preservation Trust 28:153-65.
Feistner ATC, Sterling ES (Eds) (1994) The aye-aye: Madagascar’s most puzzling primate. Folia Primatology 62:1-3. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1159/000156757
Fernandez EJ, Tamborski MA, Pickens SR, Timberlake W (2009) Animal-visitor interactions in the modern zoo: Conflicts and interventions. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 120:1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2009.06.002
Finkel IL (1988) The hanging gardens of Babylon. In: Clayton PA, Price MJ (eds) The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. Routledge, London.
Fisher J (1967) Zoos of the world: the story of animals in captivity. American Museum of Natural History, New York.
Frankham R, Briscoe DA, Ballou JD (2002) Introduction to conservation genetics. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511808999
Fraser J, Sickler J (2009) Measuring the cultural impact of zoos and aquariums. International Zoo Yearbook 43:103-112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2008.00064.x
Fuller E (1987) Extinct birds. Viking/Rainbird, London.
Gaengler H, Clum N (2015) Investigating the impact of large carcass feeding on the behavior of captive Andean condors (Vultur gryphus) and its perception by Zoo Visitors. Zoo Biology 34:118-129. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21202
Garrett EA (2014) Why do we go to the zoo: communication, animals, and the cultural-historical experience of zoos. The Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, New Jersey.
Gaskell J (2000) Who killed the Great Auk? Oxford University Press, Oxford.
George M, Chemnick LG, Cisova D, Gabrisova E, Stratil A, Ryder OA (1993) Genetic differentiation of white rhinoceros subspecies: diagnostic differences in mitochondrial DNA and serum proteins. In: Ryder OA (ed.) Proceedings International conference on rhinoceros conservation and biology. Zoological Society of San Diego, pp. 105-113.
George W (1969) Animals and maps. University of California Press, Berkeley. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1525/9780520330320
George W (1980) Sources and background to discoveries of new animals in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. History of science 18:79-104. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/007327538001800201
George W (1985) Alive or dead: zoological collections in the seventeenth century. In: Impey O, Macgregor A (Eds) The Origins of Museums: the Cabinet of Curiosities in Sixteenth- and Seventeenth-Century Europe. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Gippoliti S (2005) Historical museology meets tropical biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3127-3134. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s10531-004-0381-0
Goudie AS (2013) The human impact on the natural environment: past, present, and future. Wiley-Blackwell, New Jersey.
Green RE, Cornell SJ, Scharlemann JPW, Balmford A (2005) Farming and the fate of wild nature. Science 307:550-555. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.1106049
Grigson C (2016) Menagerie: The history of exotic animals in England. Oxford University Press, Oxford.
Grove RH (1995) Green Imperialism: Colonial Expandion, tropical island Edens and the origins of environmentalism. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
Gurusamy V, Tribe A, Toukhsati S, Phillips CJ (2015) Public attitudes in India and Australia toward elephants in zoos. Anthrozoös 28:87-100. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2752/089279315X14129350722055
Gusset M, Dick G (2011) The global reach of zoos and aquariums in visitor numbers and conservation expenditures. Zoo Biology 30:566-569. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20369
Hacker CE, Miller LJ (2016) Zoo visitor perceptions, attitudes, and conservation intent after viewing African elephants at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park. Zoo Biology 35:355-361. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21303
Hagenbeck C (1909) Beasts and men. Longmans, Green and Co., London.
Hancocks D (1980) Naturalistic solutions to zoo design problems. In: Stevens P (Ed) Third international symposium on zoo design and construction. Paignton, U.K.: Whitley Wildlife Trust, pp. 166-73.
Hancocks D (2001) Is there a place in the world for zoos? In: Salem DJ, Rowan AN (Eds) The state of the animals. Humane Society Press, Washington, DC, 137–147.
Hand KL, Freeman C, Seddon PJ, Recio MR, Stein A, Heezik YV (2017) The importance of urban gardens in supporting children’s biophilia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 114:274-279. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1609588114
Harley EH, O’ryan C (1993) Molecular genetic studies of southern African rhinoceros. In: Ryder OA (Ed) Proceedings, International conference on rhinoceros conservation and biology. Zoological Society of San Diego, San Diego, pp. 101-104.
Hediger H (1969) Man and animal in the zoo. Routledge and Kegan Paul, London, p. 303.
Heindl G (2015) Schoenbrunn Zoo in world war I. Der Zoologische Garten 85:13-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zoolgart.2014.11.004
Heneson N (1981) Getting educated at the zoo. Animal Studies Repository 2:282-283.
Hoage RJ, Deiss WA (Eds.) (1996) New Worlds, new animals: from menagerie to zoological park in the nineteenth century. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore.
Hochadel O (2005) Science in the 19th-century zoo. Endeavour 29:38-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endeavour.2004.11.002
Hosey GR, Druck PL (1987) The influence of zoo visitors on the behaviour of captive primates. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 18:19-29. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/0168-1591(87)90251-6
Hosey GR (2000) Zoo animals and their human audiences: what is the visitor effect? Animal Welfare 9:343-357. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0962728600022946
Hosey G (2017) Visitor effects. The International Encyclopedia of Primatology, pp.1-5. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119179313.wbprim0027
Hosey G, Melfi V, Formella I, Ward SJ, Tokarski M, Brunger D, Hill SP (2016) Is wounding aggression in zoo-housed chimpanzees and ring-tailed lemurs related to zoo visitor numbers? Zoo Biology 35:205-209. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21277
Howell A, Neal AW (2012) Human interest and humane governance in iraq: humanitarian war and the Baghdad zoo. Journal of Intervention and Statebuilding 6:213-232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/17502977.2012.655608
Hutchins M (1988) On the design of zoo research programmes. International Zoo Yearbook 27:9-19. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1988.tb03192.x
Hutchins M (2003) Zoo and aquarium animal management and conservation: current trends and future challenges. International Zoo Yearbook 3:8-1. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02060.x
Iannacone J, Alvariño L (2011) Percepción ambiental de los visitantes a un zoológico de Lima, Perú. Biotempo 11:36-42. DOI: https://doi.org/10.31381/biotempo.v11i0.733
Ingold T (1994) Grom trust to domination: an alternative history of human-animal relations. In: Manning A, Serpell J (eds.) Animals and Human Society: Changing perspectives. Routledge, London, pp. 1-22.
Iudzg/Cbsg (IUCN/SSC) (1993) The world zoo conservation strategy: the role of the zoos and aquaria of the world in global conservation. Chicago Zoological Society, Brookfield.
Ize (2016) International Zoo Educators Associacion Journal 52:68.
Jamieson D (1985) Against zoos. Environmental Ethics: Readings in Theory and Application 5:97-103.
Jennison G (1937) Animals for show and pleasure in ancient rome. Manchester University Press, Manchester.
Jordan B, Ormrod S (1978) Last great wild beast show. Constable and Co., Edinburgh.
Joseph S (2008) From visit to action: how zoo visitor characteristics influence environmentally-responsible behavior. All Theses, 84.
Kalof L (2007) Looking at animals in human history. Reaktions Book, London.
Karanikola P, Tampakis S, Tsantopoulos G, Digbasani C (2014) The public zoo as recreation and environmental education area: visitor's perceptions and management implications. WSEAS Transactions on Environment and Development 10:81-91.
Kellert SR (1993) Attitudes, knowledge, and behavior toward wildlife among the industrial superpowers: United States, Japan, and Germany. Journal of Social Issues 49:53-69. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-4560.1993.tb00908.x
Kelly JD (1997) Effective conservation in the twenty-first century: the need to be more than a zoo. One organization’s approach. International Zoo Yearbook 35:1-14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1997.tb01184.x
Kelly KR, Harrison ML, Size DD, Macdonald SE (2015) Individual effects of seasonal changes, visitor density, and concurrent bear behavior on stereotypical behaviors in captive polar bears (Ursus maritimus). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 18:17-31. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10888705.2014.924832
Kemmerly JD, Macfarlane V (2009) The elements of a consumer-based initiative in contributing to positive environmental change: Monterey bay Aquarium’s seafood watch program. Zoo Biology 28:398-411. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20193
Kisling VNJ (1998) Colonial menageries and the exchange of exotic faunas. Archives of Natural History 25:303-320. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3366/anh.1998.25.3.303
Kisling VNJ (2001) Zoo and aquarium history: ancient animal collections to zoological gardens. CRC Press, New York, 415. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1201/9781420039245
Kleiman DG, Beck BB, Dietz JM, Dietz LA, Ballou JD, Coimbra-Filho AF (1986) Conservation program for the golden lion tamarin: captive research and management, ecological studies, educational strategies, and reintroduction. In: BENIRSCHKE K (ed) Primates - the road to self-sustaining populations. Springer-Verlag, New York, pp. 959-979. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-4918-4_65
Kleiman DG (1983) Ethology and reproduction of captive giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). Ethology 62:1-46. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1439-0310.1983.tb02139.x
Kleiman DG (1992) Behavior research in zoos: Past, present, and future. Zoo Biology 11:301-312. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.1430110502
Klimczak N (2016) Montezuma Zoo: A Legendary Treasure of the Aztec Empire. http://www.ancient-origins.net/ancient-places-americas/montezuma-zoo-legendary-treasure-aztec-empire-005090. Acessed 09 august 2017.
Knox P, Agnew JA, Mccarthy L (2014) The geography of the world economy. Routledge, London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203775189
Knowles JM (2003) Zoos and a century of change. International Zoo Yearbook 38:28-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02061.x
Kratochvil H, Schwammer H (1997) Reducing acoustic disturbances by aquarium visitors. Zoo Biology 16:349-353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1098-2361(1997)16:4<349::AID-ZOO7>3.0.CO;2-A
Lawrence N (2012) The prime minister and the platypus: A paradox goes to war. Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences 43:290-297. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shpsc.2011.09.001
Lee HS (2015) Measurement of visitors’ satisfaction with public zoos in Korea using importance-performance analysis. Tourism Management 47:251-260. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2014.10.006
Loisel G (1912) Histoire des ménageries de l’antiquité a nos jours. H. Laiirens and O. Doin, Paris. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5962/bhl.title.22904
Lonsdale SH (1979) Attitudes toward animals in ancient Greece. Greece and Rome 26:146-159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1017/S0017383500026887
Lorek S, Spangenberg JH (2014) Sustainable consumption within a sustainable economy–beyond green growth and green economies. Journal of cleaner production 63:33-44. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.08.045
Luebke JF, Watters JV, Packer J, Miller LJ, Powell DM (2016) Zoo visitors’ affective responses to observing animal behaviors. Visitor Studies 19:60-76. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10645578.2016.1144028
Maehle AH (1994) Cruelty and kindness to the" brute creation:" Stability and change in the ethics of the man-animal relationship, 1600–1850. In: Manning A, Serpell J (eds) Animals and human society: Changing perspectives. Routledge and Taylor and Francis Group, London and New York.
Mallapur A, Waran N, Sinha A (2005) Factors influencing the behaviour and welfare of captive lion-tailed macaques in Indian zoos. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 91:337-353. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2004.10.002
Mayr E (1942) Systematics and the origin of species, from the viewpoint of a zoologist. Harvard University Press, Cambridge.
Mcneely JA (1995) Expanding partnerships in conservation. Island Press, Washington, DC.
Meffe GK, Carroll CR (1997) Principles of conservation biology. 2nd Edition. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, MA.
Menzies NK (1994) Forest and land management in Imperial China. St. Martin’s Press, New York. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1057/9780230372870
Meyer T (1889) Extinction of our birds. Ornithologists’ and Oologists’ Semi-Annual 1:28-29
Miller B, Conway W, Reading RP, Wemmer C, Wildt D, Kleiman D, Hutchins M (2004) Evaluating the conservation mission of zoos, aquariums, botanical gardens, and natural history museums. Conservation Biology 18:1-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1523-1739.2004.00181.x
Mohnhaupt J (2016) The zoo of the others: Relationship and competition between the two Berlin Zoos during the Cold War. Mammalian Biology 81:14. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mambio.2016.07.040
Mont O, Neuvonen A, Lähteenoja S (2014) Sustainable lifestyles 2050: Stakeholder visions, emerging practices and future research. Journal of Cleaner Production 63:24-32. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.09.007
Morgan JM, Hodgkinson M (1999) The motivation and social orientation of visitors attending a contemporary zoological park. Environment and Behavior 31:227-239. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1177/00139169921972074
Moss A, Esson M (2013) The educational claims of zoos: where do we go from here? Zoo Biology 32:13-18. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.21025
Moss A, Jensen E, Gusset M (2015) Evaluating the contribution of zoos and aquariums to Aichi Biodiversity Target 1. Conservation Biology 29:537-544. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.12383
Needham J (1954) Science and civilisation in China. Cambridge University Press, London.
Nimon AJ, Dalziel FR (1992) Cross-species interaction and communication: a study method applied to captive siamang (Hylobates syndactylus) and long-billed corella (Cacatua tenuirostris) contacts with humans. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 33:261-272. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/S0168-1591(05)80013-9
O'donovan D, Hindle JE, Mckeown S, O'donovan S (1993) Effect of visitors on the behaviour of female cheetahs Acinonyx jubatus. International Zoo Yearbook 32:238-244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.1993.tb03542.x
Odum RA, Reinert HK (2015) The Aruba island rattlesnake crotalus unicolor species survival plan: A case history in ex situ and in situ conservation. International Zoo Yearbook 49:104-112. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/izy.12091
Ogden J, Heimlich JE (2009) Why focus on zoo and aquarium education? Zoo Biology 28:357-360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20271
Olney PJS, Mace GM, Feistner ATC (1994) Creative conservation, interactive management of wild and captive animals. Chapman and Hall, London. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-0721-1
Osborne MA (1994) Nature, the exotic, and the ccience of French Colonialism. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.
Osborne M (2000) Acclimatizing the world: a history of the paradigmatic colonial science. Osiris 15:135-151. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1086/649323
Packer J, Ballantyne R (2002) Motivational factors and the visitor experience: a comparison of three sites. Curator 45:183-198. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.2151-6952.2002.tb00055.x
Patrick BPG, Matthews CE, Ayers DF, Tunnicliffe SD (2007) Conservation and education: prominent themes in zoo mission statements. The Journal of Environmental Education 38:53-60. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3200/JOEE.38.3.53-60
Powell DM, Bullock EVW (2014) Evaluation of factors affecting emotional responses in zoo visitors and the impact of emotion on conservation mindedness. Anthrozoos 27:389-405. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2752/175303714X13903827488042
Primack RB (2002) Essentials of conservation biology. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
Puan CL, Zakaria M (2007) Perception of visitors towards the role of zoos: A Malaysian perspective. International Zoo Yearbook 41:226-232. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2007.00009.x
Rabb GB, Saunders CD (2005) Guest essay. Environmental Protection 39:1-26. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2005.tb00001.x
Rabb GB (1994) The changing roles of zoological parks in conserving biological diversity. Integrative and Comparative Biology 34:159-164. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/icb/34.1.159
Rees PA (2011) An introduction to zoo biology and management. John Wiley and Sons, pp. 117-119. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/9781444397840
Robeyns G (2012) Special wishes for the members of Antwerp zoo: 65 years of history in pictures (1850-1914). Der Zoologische Garten 81:14-79. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.zoolgart.2012.02.002
Robinson MH (1987) Beyond the zoo: the biopark. Defenders 62:10.
Robinson MH (1992) Global change, the future of biodiversity and the future of zoos. Biotropica 24(2b):345-352. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/2388528
Ross SR, Gillespie KL (2009) Influences on visitor behavior at a modern immersive Zoo exhibit. Zoo Biology 28:462-472. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20220
Ross SR, Melber LM, Gillespie KL, Lukas KE (2012) The impact of a modern, naturalistic exhibit design on visitor behavior: A cross-facility comparison. Visitor Studies 15:3-15. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/10645578.2012.660838
Rothfels N (2002) Savages and beasts: The birth of the modern zoo. John Hopkins University Press, Baltimore. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/book.3441
Rupke N (1994) Richard Owen: Victorian naturalist. Yale University Press, New Haven.
Ryder OA, Chemnick LG (1993) Chromosomal and mitochondrial variation in orangutans. Journal of Heredity 84:405-409. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jhered.a111362
Ryder OA, Feistner ATC (1995) Research in zoos: A growth area in conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 4:671-677. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00222522
Sahlins P (2012) The royal menageries of Louis XIV and the civilizing process revisited. French Historical Studies 35:237-267. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1215/00161071-1498463
Sampaio MB, De La Fuente MF, Albuquerque UP, Da Silva Souto A, Schiel N (2018) Contact with urban forests greatly enhances children’s knowledge of faunal diversity. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 30:56-61. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ufug.2018.01.006
Schafer EH (1968) Hunting parks and animal. Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 11:318-343. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1163/156852068X00126
Schmitz C, Meijl HV, Kyle P, Nelson GC, Fujimori S, Gurgel A, Valin H (2014) Land-use change trajectories up to 2050: Insights from a global agro-economic model comparison. Agricultural Economics (United Kingdom) 45:69-84. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12090
Schwabe CW (1994) Animals in the ancient world. In: Animals and human society: Changing perspectives (Eds. A. Manning and J. Serpell). Routledge, London, 36–58.
Scott K, Heistermann M, Cant MA, Vitikainen EIK (2017) Group size and visitor numbers predict faecal glucocorticoid concentrations in zoo meerkats. Royal Society Open Science 4:1-11. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.161017
Scullard HH (1974) The elephant in the Greek and Roman world. Thames and Hudson, London.
Segawa H (1993) Brazilian colonial gardens and the Rio de Janeiro passeio público. The Journal of Garden History 13:213-223. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/01445170.1993.10412489
Seidensticker J, Doherty JG (1996) Integrating animal behavior and exhibit design. National Zoological Park, Washington, D.C.
Sellinger RL, Ha JC (2005) The effects of visitor density and intensity on the behavior of two captive jaguars (Panthera onca). Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 8:233-244. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1207/s15327604jaws0804_1
Sherwen SL, Harvey TJ, Magrath MJL, Butler KL, Fanson KV, Hemsworth PH (2015) Effects of visual contact with zoo visitors on black-capped capuchin welfare. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 167:65-73. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2015.03.004
Sneddon J, Lee J, Ballantyne R, Packer J (2016) Animal welfare values and tourist behaviour. Annals of Tourism Research 57:234-236. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.annals.2016.01.006
Soulé M, Noss R (1998) Rewilding and biodiversity: complementary goals for continental conservation. Wild Earth, pp. 18-28.
Stauffer RC (1975) Charles Darwin's natural selection: being the second part of his big species book written from 1856 to 1858. Cambridge University Press, London.
Stevens PMC, Mcalister E (2003) Ethics in zoos. International Zoo Yearbook, 3-8. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-1090.2003.tb02068.x
Strehlow H (2001) Zoologischer garten basel. Zoo Basel. 2 vol. Christoph Merian Verlag. Basel: pp 248. DOI: https://doi.org/10.3366/anh.2001.28.2.281
Szűcs E, Geers R, Jezierski T, Sossidou EN, Broom DM (2012) Animal welfare in different human cultures, traditions and religious faiths. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Science 25:1499-1506. DOI: https://doi.org/10.5713/ajas.2012.r.02
The Zoological Society Of London (2016) Index to list of zoos and aquariums of the world. International Zoo Yearbook 50:392-406.
Thompson SD (1993) Zoo research and conservation: Beyond sperm and eggs toward the science of animal management. Zoo Biology 12:155-159. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.1430120202
Tomas S, Scott D, Crompton J (2002) An investigation of the relationships between quality of service performance, benefits sought, satisfaction and future intention to visit among visitors to a zoo. Managing Leisure 7:239-250. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/136067102100005589
Vigne JD (2011) The origins of animal domestication and husbandry: A major change in the history of humanity and the biosphere. Comptes Rendus – Biologies 334:171-181. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crvi.2010.12.009
Wagner K, Chessler M, York P, Raynor J (2009) Development and implementation of an evaluation strategy for measuring conservation outcomes. Zoo Biology 28:473-487. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/zoo.20270
Webber S, Carter M, Smith W, Vetere F (2017) Interactive technology and human–animal encounters at the zoo. International Journal of Human Computer Studies 98:150-168. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhcs.2016.05.003
Webber S (2015) Design and evaluation of interactive technology for human-animal encounters at the zoo. Proceedings of the 12th International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology, 11-13. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1145/2832932.2837009
Webb TL, Sheeran P (2006) Does changing behavioral intentions engender behavior change? A meta-analysis of the experimental evidence. Psychological bulletin 132:249-268. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.132.2.249
Webster K, Narayan E, Vos N (2017) Fecal glucocorticoid metabolite response of captive koalas (Phascolarctos cinereus) to visitor encounters. General and Comparative Endocrinology 244:157-163. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2016.07.012
Weiler B, Skibins J, Markwell K, Saunders R, Dunstan E (2016) Eliciting and modelling zoo visitors' values as predictors of receptiveness to interpretive messages, emotions and behavioural intentions. School of Business and Tourism 39:1-38.
Wells DL, Hepper PG, Coleman D, Challis MG (2005) A note on the effect of olfactory stimulation on the behaviour and welfare of zoo-housed gorillas. Applied Animal Behaviour Science 106:155-160. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.applanim.2006.07.010
Wiese R, Hutchins M (1993) The role of captive breeding and reintroduction in wildlife conservation. Proceedings, American Association of Zoological Parks and Aquariums Regional Conferences, Wheeling.
Wijeratne AJC, Dijk PAV, Kirk-Brown A, Frost L (2014) Rules of engagement: The role of emotional display rules in delivering conservation interpretation in a zoo-based tourism context. Tourism Management 42:149-156. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tourman.2013.11.012
Wildt DE (2000) Genome resource banking for wildlife research, management, and conservation. ILAR Journal/National Research Council, Institute of Laboratory Animal Resources 41:228-34. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1093/ilar.41.4.228
Wilkinson A (1994) Symbolism and design in ancient egyptian gardens. Garden History 22:1-17. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2307/1586999
Wilson EO (1984) Biophilia. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. DOI: https://doi.org/10.4159/9780674045231
Wirtz PH (1997) Zoo city: Bourgeois values and scientific culture in the industrial landscape. Journal of Urban Design 2:61-82. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1080/13574809708724396
Wood CA, Fyfe FM (1943) The art of falconry by Frederick II of Hohenstaufen. Stanford University Press, Stanford.
Woodland Park Zoo (2015) Index to list of zoos and aquariums of the world. International Zoo Yearbook, 392-406. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1111/izy.12129
Woods B (2002) Good zoo/bad zoo: Visitor experiences in captive settings. Anthrozoös 15:343-360. DOI: https://doi.org/10.2752/089279302786992478
Woollard SP (1998) The development of zoo education. International Zoo News 45:422-426.
World Association of Zoos and Aquariums (2016) Future of zoos and aquatiums design 17:48.
Yilmaz S, Mumcu S, Özbilen A (2010) Effects of spatial differences on visitor perceptions at zoo exhibits. Scientific Research and Essays 5:2327-2340.
Zeuner FE (1963) A history of domesticated animals. Hutchinson, London.
Downloads
Published
How to Cite
Issue
Section
License
This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License (CC BY). The use, distribution or reproduction in other forums is permitted, provided the original author(s) and the copyright owner(s) are credited and that the original publication in this journal is cited, in accordance with accepted academic practice. No use, distribution or reproduction is permitted which does not comply with these terms.
